Ancient egypt Privileged location
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| Ancient egypt |
Over the next 3000
years, Egypt prospered despite hardships, internal conflicts and foreign invasion. Herodotus, the Greek historian who traveled to Egypt in the
5th century BC, called it “the
gift of the Nile.”
Wind and water
The Nile is the source of all Egyptian life. Without that sacred
river, all this land would have been barren, dried by the broiling sun
and the wind. Rainfall gradually diminished in the area
of Egypt, start- ing around the beginning of the third millennium BC;
over time, it be-
came almost non-existent.
People began
concentrating along the nar- row
strip of land on both sides of the river, where they survived by fish-
ing, hunting,
gathering, farming and breeding livestock. The
remaining
region was desert, known as deshret (“red land”) — an area that was regarded as sinister and perilous, and was often avoided. The black soil
and the narrow colonized strip of land alongside the Nile was called khemet (“black land”); it provided a sharp contrast to the lifeless “red
land.”
The Nile received its modern name from
the Greeks, who referred to the river as “Neilos.” The Nile is the longest river in the world —
almost 4200 miles long — yet it is only 500
yards wide. Out of Ethiopia
rises the Blue Nile and from Uganda comes the White Nile. They con-
verge at Khartoum, Sudan, flowing northward into Egypt, becoming
Iteru Aa (or “the Great River,” as it was known to the ancient Egyp- tians).
The Nile is the only
major river to
flow north; its many
tributar-
ies originate in the mountains south of the
equator, and it cuts through hills, deserts and riparian marshes to empty into the
Mediterranean Sea
or
Wadj Wer (“the Great Green”). (Both “aa” and “wer” translate into
“great.”) Thus, Upper Egypt and Deshret are located in the southern region while Lower Egypt, the marsh area and the Delta are situated
to the north. Both regions were known as taui (“the two lands”). The northernmost area, where the waters fan
out into streams in a triangu-
lar-shaped region, is known as the Delta, the name of the fourth letter of
the Greek
alphabet
whose shape it resembles.
Each summer, rains from Africa cause the waters of the Nile to rise
and temporarily flood the land, depositing a new layer of rich silt
ideal for growing crops. The fertile valley and warm climate afforded an
optimal environment for the villagers or fellahin to
become proficient
in the science of agriculture.
Ancient Egyptian civilization was based upon the fertility of the soil; seeds were planted
that only the Nile could
nourish. The annual flooding also left behind immense thickets of
papyrus. This versatile reed was converted into myriad
necessities in- cluding paper, rope, fabric, sandals, baskets, mats, stools and river rafts.
Every year, the settlers watched and waited with anticipation
hoping that the waters would
rise high enough
to ensure irrigation. As the settlements grew,
not only in number but in size,
the
collective ef- fort, the commitment to
cultivating the land, required the organization
of
extensive labor; the expanding irrigation works were an enterprise that
had to be performed on a grand scale and this, in turn, became cru-
cial in the development of the community.
Measuring and recording the level of the annual flood was a mat-
ter of national importance; the device used for this task was called a “Nilometer”. It consisted of simple markings, in the form of a descend- ing staircase leading down into the river; the depth of the rising waters
was observed
and documented by officials who used
this economic predictor to
set
the level of taxes based on the prospective crops for the
coming year. The ideal height for the waters to
rise, based on the Nilometer, was
about 25 to 30
feet. Low water — anything
less
than six feet below the target — meant food shortages, and possibly famine.
Highs of six feet over
the ideal meant disaster as well — the destruc- tion of protective dykes, dams, and mud-brick homes, and the flooding of
entire
villages.
In
successful
years, the Nile overflowed during
the summer
months and flooded the valley, setting the scene for the year ahead. The
agricultural cycle consisted of three seasons, based upon the cycle
of the Nile. The first and most important was called Akhet,
the season of inundation that took place from mid-July to
mid-November. Akhet was followed by Peret, or Proyet, the season of emergence or “coming forth,”
when
growth occurred, from mid-November to mid-March.
During this time, the farmers worked the fields, and reaped their grain and
flax. The third season, when the river was at its lowest, marking the end of the
harvest, spanned from mid-March to mid-July; it was called Shemu
or Shomu.
The ancient Egyptians believed the Nile’s springs to
have origi- nated in paradise — or at the first
cataract, near Abu (Elephantine). The water of the Nile
was considered to have nutritive value; it not only served
as a symbol of purity and renewal but
it visibly gave life to Egypt
every year, bringing forth abundance. The river was also thought to
contain healing properties, and it was frequently used in medicinal
pre- scriptions.
The people of Ancient egypt dedicated many songs to the Nile, such as the “Hymn to the Nile,” “Adoration of the Nile” and “Hymn to Hapi.” Hapi was
the androgynous god of the Nile, also known as “Son of the Nile” — and yet, Hapi was not considered to be responsible for the
annual inundation. This honor and grave responsibility went to Khnemu, the ram-headed god who
was worshipped as
the “God
of Floods.” Khnemu was credited with “bringing forth the waters” from the first cataract, where he was believed to dwell.
The people
of Egypt tradi- tionally expressed profound gratitude to the Nile and its deity for the abundance
of crops that provided sufficient food for the coming year. Kings and
chaos
Ancient egypt emerged from the pre-Dynastic Age
in 3100 BC and its civilization of dynasties endured for over three millennia. The enor- mous task of categorizing
Egypt’s history was first taken up during the third century BC, by an Egyptian scholar and priest named Manetho,
from Tjebneter (Sebennytos). At the request of Kings
Ptolemy I and II, he developed a chronological
list of past pharaohs and their reigns.
Manetho divided Egyptian history into 30 dynasties
(successions of related rulers, each of which ended when a pharaoh
died without
an heir or when outsiders managed to break the sequence). This classifica-
tion has been maintained throughout the ages by historians who, in
turn, have partitioned Manetho’s list of kings into three time-periods
known as Kingdoms and three more periods of internal
political unrest
known as Intermediate Periods.
It
is important to bear in mind that dates often vary by several hundred
years, depending on
the historical
source
one consults, and in
some cases dates may overlap as a result of the royal tradition of co-
regency.
It is generally accepted that
the 1st Dynasty began with the unifi- cation of the two lands by King Narmer in 3100 BC, establishing
him as the first pharaoh. As king of Upper Egypt, Narmer conquered Lower
Egypt, thus uniting the two lands under one ruler for the
first time in history. (A
competing version
holds that this honor went to King Scor-
pion
or King Menes — or that they were one and the same person.) As a unified
entity,
Egypt would stand to benefit and
prosper
from coop- eration rather than competition.
It is at this time that hieroglyphic writing made its first appear-
ance. As
the people
amalgamated, improved communication was
needed to ensure a prosperous harvest for the growing population and the successful administration and development of the country.
The capital
of the newly-unified Egypt was founded at Mennefer (Memphis),
meaning “Established and Beautiful.” This site
was selected because of its strategic position at
the apex of the Delta, between Up-
per and Lower Egypt. Mennefer was also known as
Ineb-Hedj (“White
Wall,” a reference to the white wall enclosing the town’s most promi- nent
landmark, the royal palace). Mennefer, or Ineb-Hedj, was the offi-
cial capital during the
3rd Dynasty and remained an important
religious and administrative center throughout
ancient Egyptian
history. It was here that the pyramids and
royal necropolis of Giza and Saqqara were situated.
Egypt flourished
during the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and
New Kingdom. These empires were separated by periods of strife and
decline known as the
1st, 2nd and 3rd Intermediate Periods,
when Egypt lacked a strong central government and was racked by internal
political
turmoil. Foreign trade and contacts with other lands also
at- tracted covetous attention from abroad, resulting
in
foreign invasion.
The 1st and 2nd Dynasties comprise the Early
Dynastic, Archaic or
Thinite Period.
The Old Kingdom began
during the 3rd Dynasty, c. 2700 BC. This period
is known as
the Era of Stability, or
the Pyramid
Age.
For 500 years, Egypt experienced tranquility and prosperity, particularly during the
4th Dynasty, where grand achievements were attained in art and
architecture in the form of the construction of the pyramids. During this
time, an efficient administrative
system was established as the gov- ernment became more centralized.
However, a breakdown within the
central administration arose as a result of the dispersion of duties and powers.
This decline brought about the collapse
of
the highly- structured
society
of the Old Kingdom.
The 7th Dynasty gave rise to the 1st Intermediate Period (c. 2150
BC). This
was a time of internal conflict, revolution, riots,
strikes and civil war that
lasted
until
the
10th Dynasty. Eventually,
order and pros- perity were restored; battles were fought and won, resulting in the re- unification of the land and paving the way to the 11th Dynasty (c. 2050
BC), inaugurating the
Middle Kingdom.
The Middle Kingdom is also known as the Period of Greatness and Rebirth. The finest
Egyptian literature and craftsmanship in jew- elry
and art date back to this period, never to be surpassed. The
Middle Kingdom was prosperous, as the administration was reformed and new
cities (or niwty)
were founded. The Egyptians expanded into Nubia and increased their political power, foreign trade
and economic strength. A
new social class (a middle class) emerged during this period and gained influence, as it comprised a new population that was willing and pre-
pared to work hard for the growth and expansion of the nation.
During the Middle Kingdom, Uast or Waset (Thebes,
present-day Luxor
and Karnak) first gained prominence.
Uast (“Dominion”)
became the nation’s capital during the 12th Dynasty. Uast was home to the most significant and wealthiest religious centers until the Late Period; it reached its pinnacle
as the capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom, particularly during the 18th Dynasty when it served as the religious
heart of Egypt. However, external forces
(primarily from the east) re-
sulted in the fragmentation
of the state, bringing down the era of the
Middle Kingdom.
The 2nd Intermediate Period began with the collapse of the Mid-
dle
Kingdom during the 13th Dynasty (c.
1775
BC). These turbulent times lasted over two centuries; disorganization and brief reigns by weak
foreign rulers were typical. During the 14th Dynasty, the Asiatic Hyksos, known
as “Foreign Kings”
or “Shepherd Kings,” took over
as rulers of Egypt. The Hyksos, who traveled
across the desert and settled
near the eastern border of Egypt,
established trading centers through-
out the Delta, expanding control over most of this region. Their origins are
unclear, but most scholars agree that the Hyksos likely came from Palestine or Syria. These “vile Asiatics,” as the Egyptians called them, had frizzy hair and curly beards as illustrated in pictures from
this
era. The new capital was established at Per-Ramessu (“House of Ramses”),
otherwise known as
the
town of Avaris.
When King Ahmose finally expelled the Hyksos, thus
re-unifying Egypt, the New Kingdom
was ushered in. The New
Kingdom began with the 18th Dynasty (c.
1550 BC); this era is also known as the Great- est Era and Golden Age. During this time, the population has been esti- mated
at close to 3 million, quite a high figure for the times.
It was during the New Kingdom that the most remarkable figures
ruled the land of Egypt.
Pharaohs such as Tuthmose I to IV, Hatshep-
sut,
Amenhotep I to III, Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), Tutankhamen,
and Seti I and II reigned during this prosperous time. The Ramessid Era also
occurred during the New
Kingdom, during the reigns of Ramses I
through XI. During the New Kingdom, Egypt reached
new heights of power
and greatness. The worship of Amen, “the Creator,” was restored and the capital was relocated to Uast.
However,
during the highly controversial
reign of Akhenaten, the
capital was moved to Akhetaten
(Amarna). Political and religious dif- ferences between the priesthood,
the
military and government officials,
along with increasing foreign pressure from
the
Hyksos and Kushites (Nubians), brought on the decentralization of
the
state and served as catalysts to bring this era to
a close. The 3rd Intermediate Period began
with the 21st Dynasty
(c.
1087 BC). At this time, the Egyptian empire crumbled and was overtaken by the Kushites,
and later, by
the mighty Assyrians.
The Late Period began with the 25th Dynasty (c. 712 BC), when Egypt was under Kushite power — and twice, later,
under Persian rule.
This was a troubled era. In 332 BC, the Greeks came to power and
es-
tablished the 31st Dynasty, ushered in by
Alexander the Great and con- tinuing as the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The
capital was moved to a settle- ment called Raqote, which was re-named Alexandria by the
Greeks in
honor of the founder
of the dynasty
and the city.
The empire, however, crumbled under the formidable weight of
the Roman invasion in 30 BC,
which brought the end of ancient Egyp- tian
civilization, culture and history.
Egypt became a province of Rome. Pharaohs no
longer ruled their land.