mummies puzzle many people don't know
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In Predynastic times, the
deceased were laid to rest in shallow pits. The corpse was set on its left
side, in a crouched position, with a few helpful belongings such as pottery
jars filled with food and drink. The head was turned to face west toward the
land of the dead and the setting sun; this was thought to be conducive to
resurrection and re- birth. Often, the body was wrapped in a blanket of reed
matting or ani- mal skins, and later by life-sized baskets. Those with adequate
means were buried in wooden coffins and provided with all the possessions they
would require in the next world.
During the 1st Dynasty, the
deceased were deposited in dwelling houses for the souls, or funerary
compartments, called mastabas. This word translates into “bench,” in modern
Arabic, and the compartments resembled the low benches that are found outside
modern Egyptian homes. Mastabas were low and rectangular in shape, topped with
a white painted or mud brick structure that protected the body and the
possessions for use in the afterlife. Mastabas were the basis for the pyramids
of the 3rd and 4th Dynasties.
During Predynastic times, bodies
were buried in sand; it was dis- covered that the body could be naturally
preserved as a result of the exceptionally arid conditions.
Building on that idea, mummification
became customary during the 2nd
Dynasty (although evidence exists of earlier mummification). Several corpses
with their heads, arms and hands bandaged in linen wrappings have been found
buried under reed matting dated c. 3500 BC. The ancient Egyptians believed that
as long as the body remained intact, the soul could live eternally; thus it was
imperative that the body be preserved and free from damage and decay.
With all due respect
Three options were at the
disposal of the deceased’s family, de- pending on their financial means. The
economy plan required only a day or two to complete. The moderate plan took 30
days — the process of mummifying a relative and the cost of the funerary mask
set the aver- age Egyptian back about four months’ wages.
The luxury plan was completed within 70 days. Much more than
mummification was per- formed during this period. The sarcophagus, carved out
of stone during the Middle Kingdom, and the tomb, had to elaborately prepared
to re- ceive the body. The word “sarcophagus” stems from the Greek words “sark”
(flesh) and “phagus” (eating). Sarcophagi — which contained the bodies of the
deceased — were perceived by the Greeks as “flesh- eating” boxes. Preparing
funerary items were an important occupation for artisans, craftsmen, and
woodworkers as well as tomb builders. In addition, priests and scribes were
kept busy preparing the funerary texts to be placed with the deceased.
The 70-day process, accessible
only to those at the top of the fi- nancial scale, began with the cleansing of
the body. The brain matter was first softened with a corrosive liquid injected
into the brain cavity. Then the brain was removed, with a hooked instrument
inserted through a nostril. There is evidence that the brain was sometimes re-
moved through a hole made at the base of the skull. This organ was considered
insignificant waste matter, conducive to moisture and de- cay, and therefore it
was discarded; then the brain cavity was filled with resins. Next, the internal
organs, likewise subject to rapid decay, were removed. A 3 ½” abdominal
incision was carved into the left side of the body with a sharp knife of flint
or Ethiopian obsidian.
The liver, stomach, lungs and
intestines were removed and placed
individually in what the Greeks
called Canopic Jars. One theory holds that this name is derived from the
village of Canopus (Abu-Qir), situ- ated at the Nile Delta near Alexandria. In
this town, human-headed jars were worshipped during the
Late Period as the personification of Ausar.
Greek legend has it that the jars were named after Canopus, fleet
commander of Spartan King Menelaus of Alexandria, who started the Trojan
War. Canopus died in Egypt and a city was named after him. Canopus subsequently
came to be worshipped in the Delta region, dur- ing the late
Period, in a form resembling a human-headed jar. The Canopic Jars
were made of clay, wood, alabaster, limestone or faience, and were inscribed
with spells believed to magically re-unite the body with its organs in the
afterlife.
Among Tutankhamen’s treasures, a
miniature shrine serving as a Canopic chest containing four cylindrical
compartments, carved out of a single block of alabaster, was found. The four
protective goddesses, Auset, Nebet-Het, Selket and Nit, are carved into each
corner to guard the king’s mummifed viscera.
Each Canopic jar was designed
with a lid or stopper in the form of the head of one of the four mesu heru, or
the “four sons of Heru.” Imset, represented with a human head, held the liver.
Hapy, in his ape-head form, protected the lungs. The falcon-head
Qebehsenuf guarded the intestines and Duamutef, the jackal-headed god,
preserved the stom- ach. In turn, the sons of Heru were guarded by the four
protective god- desses.
By the 22nd Dynasty, the jars
became purely symbolic as the or- gans were removed, wrapped in linen and
placed back inside the body cavity. The heart, or “seed of intelligence” or
“source of life,” as it was called, was usually left in the body, as it was the
heart that spoke on behalf of the deceased at the Judgment Hall.
The next step was to remove all
moisture from the body. Linen- wrapped packets of natron were placed inside the
body cavities and more packets and natron in its loose form surrounded the body.
This “divine salt,” as it was called, acted as highly effective drying agent.
Na- tron also doubled as an antiseptic, being a natural purifier. After forty
days in this natron bath, the body became a hard shell, no longer sus- ceptible
to moisture and decay. Natron is a carbonate of sodium that
occurs naturally in salt lakes
and other deposits.
When the corpse had dried out,
the natron packs were removed and the body was washed with palm wine or the
healing, sacred waters of the Nile. Next, it was treated with special oils and
scented resins such as myrrh and cassia. These resins were also stuffed into
the body cavities, along with sawdust and wads of linen soaked in resins and
oils, in order to preserve the shape of the body.
Once the body was sewn up again,
the wrapping process began. Hundreds of yards of linen were used, and as the
body was being wrapped, priests recited spells and prayers. The wrapping
process took about 14 days; each finger and toe was individually wrapped in
layers of fine white linen coated in mummiya, (the Persian-Arabic term meaning
bitumen or tar) before the entire hand or foot was wrapped. The word
“mummy” comes from mummiya, a black adhesive resin used in wrap- ping the
mummy. Mummiya was found in the Near East and was thought to possess special
healing powers.
The
mummies of
pharaohs were positioned with the hands crossed
over the chest, as sign of kingship. Amulets such as the eye of Heru, the
girdle of Auset or the scarab, the sacred beetle, were inserted in between the
bandages in specific designated positions. The scarab, a powerful amulet, was
placed over the heart of the mummy with a spell inscribed upon it to prevent
the heart form symbolically incriminating or betraying its owner. Prayers and
spells were sometimes inscribed on the linen itself, as well. Often, the heart
was replaced entirely with a large scarab amulet to facilitate rebirth. The
heart scarab amulet was made out of lapis lazuli, carnelian or other
semi-precious stone. Over
140 amulets were found within the
bandages of King Tutankhamen’s mummy, which was wrapped in 13 layers of the
finest linen.
At this stage, the cosmetician
painted the face, adding color to the lips, eyes, cheeks, nails, palms and
soles. Artificial eyes were often in- serted in the eye sockets, if the family
could afford such extravagance. For those who could afford them, a funerary
mask and wig were added to assist the soul in easily recognizing its physical
body.
The shrouded mummy was then
deposited in two nested coffins
of cedar or other fine wood. The
outer case protected the first coffin and the body. The coffins were decorated
with scenes of the deceased’s
life and deeds, providing a
pictorial biography. Finally, the body and the double casket were
placed inside the sarcophagus, its place of eter- nal rest. Eyes were painted
on the outside of the sarcophagus so that the deceased would be able to look
out. When the entire process was completed, the priests, relatives, friends and
mourners transported the coffin to its burial site.
Tomb walls were illustrated with
scenes of the deceased person’s family as well as the activities that he or she
had been enjoyed during this life and looked forward to in the next. Inside the
tomb, the physi- cal body was preserved, protected and surrounded by articles
provided for use in the afterlife — the same items needed while living on
earth. Among the possessions one would take
to his tomb were clothing, wigs, professional tools,
weapons, writing material, games, jewelry and nourishment for the Ka or
“double.” Miniature models, such as that of a boat, were often used; they took
up less space and were less costly to manufacture, while symbolically serving
their purpose as well as the authentic item.
The dead were also provided with
cosmetics, perfumes, oils, jars, chests, utensils, linen, furniture, pets,
amulets, and servants in the form of Ushabti or
Shawabti. The Egyptian word for “answer”
was useb. Ushabtis, or “answerers,” were little figures or model servants, male
and female, carved out of stone, wood, metal or faience that first ap- peared
during the New Kingdom. Ushabtis were intended to perform the work and chores
assigned to the deceased by the gods; the dead would be buried with all the
Ushabtis he was expected to need to per- form the cosmic duties that the gods
might request in return for protec- tion and immortality. The standard number
provided for a wealthy man was 365, one for each day of the year, plus 36
overseers (one for each decan, or group of ten).
King Tutankhamen was buried with 413
Ushabtis made of wood, limestone
and alabaster, and no fewer than
700 Ushabtis, inscribed with the
VI Chapter of the Book of the Dead, were found in the tomb of Seti I. Ushabtis
were often inscribed with a spell on the back of the figure; this was supposed
to be read in order to activate the servant. Often, they were simply inscribed
with the name of the deceased.
In the modern era, “mummy abuse”
has been rampant. By the 11th century, Egyptian
mummies were being ground into
powder and sold as Mummia Vera; this was marketed as an aphrodisiac and a
medicine. The great Persian physician Avicenna prescribed Mummia for just about
every illness. By the 16th century, Mummia
Vera had become highly sought after and was sold in apothecaries
throughout Europe well into the 17th century.
From medicine to amusement —
early in the 19th century, it be- came fashionable to hold dinner parties in
Europe where guests were entertained by the unwrapping of an authentic Egyptian
mummy. Later in the 19th century, Arabs were selling powdered mummy mixed with
butter as a salve to heal bruises.
In perhaps the grossest abuse of
all, during the American Civil
War, a paper manufacturer named
Isaac Augustus Stanwood had the ghastly idea of importing Egyptian
mummies to
mitigate the critical shortage of rags needed for making paper. He imported
huge quantities of
mummies, for their linen bandaging; they were unwrapped, and
the bandages were reduced to pulp. Soon, U.S. citizens came to
expect their meat to be wrapped in brown paper — as it still is, at many
butcher shops today. This process cost Stanwood less than half the price of
purchasing rags in America.
He was forced to cease this
operation when cholera broke out, claiming the lives of many workers employed
in his paper mill — a curse, for disturbing the Egyptian deities