Explorations of the pyramids
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A popular Arabic saying captures
the essence of the oldest and last remaining wonder of the ancient world: “Man
fears time, but time fears the Pyramids.” Still standing nearly five millennia
after they were built, the pyramids symbolize the origins of mathematics,
geometry and astronomy. Without this combined intelligence, the pyramids
could not have been designed. Indeed, it seems that the Egyptians may have been
aware of the dimensions of the earth and incorporated those fig- ures into
their scale of measurement and the building of the Great Pyra- mid. The uncanny
precision of these constructions is a stunning reflec- tion of the
sophistication of these people who lived in the very first days of the history
of Western civilization.
The pyramids
are generally oriented east/west. The Egyptians
called them mr, but the Greeks
named them “pyramidos” after the wheaten cakes, of that shape, eaten in Greece.
The pyramids were mod- eled after the primeval mound from which all life
originated, symboliz- ing the concept of rebirth, resurrection and immortality.
The rising and setting of the
stars were measured and used to es- tablish a true North. From this point,
South could be derived, and East and West were calculated by using the midpoint
of North and South. This is the earliest form of astronomy in ancient Egypt,
and it enabled them to orient the pyramids very precisely.
pyramid scheme
Explorations of the pyramids were
expected to reveal great in- sights into the customs of the ancient Egyptians;
in reality, more ques- tions were raised than
answered. Did the ancient Egyptians really know
the exact dimensions of the earth? No explanation seems ade- quate, yet they
seem to have been well aware that the earth is spherical and apparently they
found the value of Pi, and, by carefully observing the movements of the
planets, it seems that they ascertained the earth’s circumference. They built
the Great Pyramid so that the relationship between its circumference and its
height is the same as the relationship between the earth’s circumference and
its radius at the pole.
Professor Charles Piazzi Smyth
(scholar and Astronomer Royal for Scotland) measured the pyramid and calculated
its vertical height. He came to the conclusion that that the pyramid
gained 9 units in width per 10 units
of height. When he multiplied the
height of the pyramid by a 10:9 ratio, the result was 91,840,000 —
just about the mean distance of the earth
from the sun (which varies between
91,000,000 and 92,000,000 miles).
Sir Isaac Newton conducted
research on the building of the pyra- mid, and he concluded that two different
types of cubits must have been used: the standard cubit measures 20.6 inches
but the second one
— which he called the “sacred
cubit” — equals the polar radius of the earth when divided by
10,000,000, that is (in today’s equivalent), 25 inches. When the
base length of the Pyramid is divided into units of 25 inches, the result is
365.2 — the number of days in a year. Indeed, they seem to have known what they
were doing.
The pyramids were believed to be
houses of eternity for the de- ceased pharaohs, serving as permanent places for
their spirits to dwell, and as funerary temples. The pyramids served as
memorials rather than actual tombs; no actual pharaonic remains have even been
found inside or under a pyramid. Directly underneath the core of the pyramid
were the burial chambers. Descending corridors were constructed at an an- gle
leading to the chambers, which were sealed with solid stone. Of course, this
did not suffice to keep tomb robbers away.
It has been suggested that the
pyramids were great secret temples where the privileged classes underwent a
mystical ritual that was be-
lieved to transform the deceased
into gods; others believe the pyramids to have been the product of a colossal
work project intended merely to keep the citizens occupied and unified by
working toward a collective goal. Other theories assert that the pyramids are
stone calendars and/or astronomical observatories.
Most of the pyramids are situated
on the western side of the Nile within fifty miles of Cairo, in the Land of the
Dead and the setting sun.
Hard rock
Ancient Egypt was rich in
building material suitable for monu- mental construction. Large quantities of
red, grey and black granite were quarried at Aswan and used to line the
corridors and interior of the pyramid chambers. Limestone was quarried near
Mennefer and was used for the outer surfacing; sandstone came from the cliffs
in Upper Egypt.
These heavy blocks of stone are
believed to have been transferred to the building site
by rope, barge, and sledges hauled by gangs
of workers. After being floated down the Nile, the barges or flat-beds con-
structed of imported timber were pulled by sleds or rolled on logs; ani- mals such
as horses were not used to carrying such heavy loads nor was the wheel in use
at this time in Egyptian history.
The blocks were so meticulously
aligned that a razor blade could not be inserted into the seams. Iron tools
were not yet in use; copper was the best they had for tools such as chisels and
saws for cutting the limestone blocks that formed the outer casing.
The basis of the pyramid was the
mastaba or mortuary compart- ment that was customary during the First
Dynasty. King Djoser of the
3rd Dynasty charged his vizier,
Imhotep, with designing a new style of
mastaba to shelter his eternal
rest. Rather than using the traditional mud bricks, Imhotep had the (very
solid) idea of building one mastaba over another, of imperishable stone until
six layers of diminishing size were formed, reaching 200 feet in height.
His plan was built from local
stone; however, fine limestone was used for the outer facing. Each side was
aligned to the four cardinal points of the compass. The result was the first
surviving man-made
monument in history made entirely
of stone; it is known as the Step Pyramid of Saqqara. The design of the pyramid
symbolizes a flight of steps leading to heaven, a stairway to the stars where
the deceased hoped to be reunited with Ausar and dwell among the gods. King
Djoser’s tomb chamber was constructed entirely from pink granite and situated
at the bottom of a shaft sealed with rubble. This pyramid was originally
surrounded by temples and royal courtyards.
King Sneferu (of the 4th Dynasty)
built the next three pyramids, which were later perfected by his successors.
The first was the Pyramid of Meidum, located five miles south of Saqqara. It is
generally believed that Sneferu actually continued work started by his father
Huni, the last pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty.This pyramid originally began as a
du- plication of the Step Pyramid, this time with seven layers.
The Bent Pyramid is situated at
Dahshur. It began at a 54 degree,
31 minute angle and narrowed
upward to a 43 degree, 21 minute angle. This tapering effect was intended to
prevent the structure from crum- bling, as its weight would cause the limestone
sides to crack. Therefore, this pyramid displays a “bent” or sloped appearance.
The Bent Pyramid is also known as the South Pyramid.
The Red Pyramid is also located
at Dahshur. When bathed in the desert sunset, the pink limestone casing flushes
to a warm red. It was also known as the North Pyramid, as its entrance is
positioned in a de- scending passage cut into the northern side.
Sneferu’s son Khufu built the
first, the tallest and the largest of the three pyramids at Giza. It is
believed to have taken some twenty years for about 20,000 men using 2.3
million limestone and granite blocks to complete the structure. Each
block weighed between 2.5 to 15 tons; enough to ensure stability and endurance.
During the 13th century of our era, Arabs stripped the sheathing of smooth limestone
away from Khufu’s pyramid in order to build mosques in Cairo. The pyramid rests
on a base covering 13 acres. Originally it rose to a height of 481 feet, but it
is now 451 feet tall. This pyramid is unique in the fact that its cham- ber is
quarried directly from the bedrock under the core of the pyramid.
Like the pyramids at Dahshur, it
once contained a mortuary tem- ple, and a great causeway connecting it to the
valley temple. In old maps from the 19th century, the entire complex could
still be seen. The square base of the pyramid has a perimeter equal to the
circumference of a circle whose radius would equal the pyramid’s height. The
north and south sides are accurately oriented, missing true north by less than
1/10th of a degree. Clearly, the
ancient Egyptians were skilled in taking precise astronomical measurements and
then transferring this knowl- edge to earth. The Grand Gallery of Khufu’s
pyramid leading up to the King’s Chamber is further
aligned with the local celestial meridian, which was
used to observe stellar movements. According to legend, Khufu designed his own
burial chamber, situated below the pyramid, surrounded by a
moat: Herodotus claimed that in the underground
chamber, “a cut was made from the Nile” and the water from it turned this site
into an island. No evidence of this has ever been found.
His son Khafre built the second,
in order and in size, of the pyra-
mids at Giza. His is the best
preserved of the three and still displays pieces of its original limestone casing
at the apex. Khafre’s pyramid originally stood at 471 feet, that is, 10 feet
lower than Khufu’s pyramid; but the slope of its angles is 2 degrees higher
than those of his father’s pyramid and it is constructed on a higher plateau,
so that it appears to
be the tallest of the three.
Khafre’s complex consisted of the pyramid and a mortuary temple linked by a
causeway to the valley temple.
His son Menkaura (“Established
Spirits of Ra”) is responsible for the third of the pyramids at Giza; it is the
smallest one there, but still it rises to 218 feet. Menkaura died before his
pyramid was completed; it was finished by his successor, Shepseskaf.
Each of the pyramids at Giza
originally contained an adjoining mortuary temple situated nearby as well as a
valley temple, causeway and cult chapel. A modern theory has created much
controversy sur- rounding the origins of this complex: it has been suggested
that the physical layout of the three structures mirrors the three stars
forming the belt of the constellation of Orion, known as sah to the ancient
Egyp- tians. This theory supports the idea that the pyramids are symbolic of a
terrestrial map of the heavens directing divine energy to earth. The an- cient
Egyptians believed that life on earth was reflected or duplicated in the
heavens. To the left of Orion is Sopdet (Sirius, the Dog Star). Sopdet
was venerated as embodying the soul of Auset, as Sah (Orion) represents Ausar.
Sopdet and Sah were believed to be the souls of the divine couple who together
ruled the heavens.
It is true that Menkaura’s
pyramid is curiously positioned out of alignment with the two larger pyramids,
and is slightly off to the left. However, one must question why the remaining
stars of the constella- tion of Orion were not represented or mapped out by any
other pyra- mids if that was the rationale.
Modern research has proposed that
the shafts (originally thought to exist for ventilation purposes) might
actually have had astronomical significance. The eight-inch square shaft of the
King’s Chamber of the Great Pyramid points directly to the celestial pole, and
the King’s southern shaft points to the three stars of Orion’s Belt as it would
have appeared c. 2500 BC. The shaft of the Queen’s Chamber, which was never
used as a burial chamber, pointed directly to Auset’s constella- tion, Sopdet,
at the time the pyramids were built. This information leads to the theory
that the deceased’s Ka was supposed to be able to leave the pyramid through
these shafts and join the gods in the heav- enly Kingdom of Amenti.
Who did it?
There is also much controversy
surrounding the question of who built the pyramids. Were thousands of slaves
exploited or was it a Her- culean collective effort on the part of the
Egyptians themselves?
Burial grounds
situated near the pyramids have revealed
the tombs of the actual builders. Often, extra materials (such stone and mud
brick left over from the pyramids) were used to construct small mounds
over the graves of the workmen, indicating that they were given true and
proper Egyptian burials, whereas slaves were not. This would seem to support
the idea that pyramid construction was re- garded by the Egyptians as a
religious and state duty, even an honor. The pyramid-builders may well have
been employed by the state, the same as the other skilled craftsmen, unskilled
laborers, and local villag- ers who worked during the off-season on public
projects between July and November, when the annual inundation took place. The
workers and farmers contributed to the growth of the land while earning a mod-
est income. A large labor force was organized, with a supervisory struc- ture,
which led to the expansion and development of the nation of Egypt and the
welfare and security of its people. The construction of pyramids not only
guaranteed the immortality of the pharaoh but of the workers as well, since
they were able to afford a proper burial from the wages received.
Proof that the workers received
wages lies in the well- documented strike or work stoppage that took place
during the 29th year of the reign of Ramses III (mentioned in the chapter on
Labor and Crafts). Upon a stela the pharaoh had information inscribed showing
how well the workmen were compensated — he speaks of a monthly salary, and
storehouses filled with linen, oil, food and sandals for the workmen.
No records have been found
providing information on how the pyramids were planned, designed or constructed
and few references to pyramids are found in the surviving texts. Ramps built
from the mud of the Nile were probably instrumental in the construction. A ramp
would lead from ground level to the top of the first layer of stone, then a
sec- ond ramp would lead to the top of the second layer of stone and so on,
until the top was reached. Later, the men must have worked their way
down, smoothing the outer blocks
and then removing the ramps.
Remains of such ramps have been
discovered at the Giza Plateau, where blocks of stone were dragged by teams of
workers, with rope and wooden sleds, to each corner of the pyramid. Solid
evidence of this theory exists in the funerary relief of the tomb belonging to
a 12th Dy- nasty Nomarch named Tehutihotep. In this scene, a colossal statue of
the pharaoh (weighing over 60 tons) is being pulled by four rows of men
totaling 172 workers. A man is seen pouring water in front of the sled to make
the ground slick, enabling the blocks to be slid along.
Down in the valley
By the New Kingdom, pyramids were
no longer being built. Phar- aoh Tuthmose I instructed his vizier Imeni to come
up with a unique burial place for him, and Imeni discovered the best location
in a deep canyon over guarded by a huge pyramid-shaped mountain or rocky
outcrop on the west bank of the Nile. Today, it is known as el-Qurn, which is Arabic
for “The Horn.” To the ancient Egyptian, the topogra- phy closely resembled the
hieroglyph for the horizon, the entrance into the Underworld. The site was
located on the west banks of the Nile, hidden beneath the hills of Uast. Its
fine-quality limestone, proximity to the fertile banks of the Nile and
protection against vandalism (provided by the steep cliffs) made this the ideal
royal burial grounds. This necropolis is now known as the Valley of the Kings
and nearly 30 pharaohs followed Tuthmose into this eternal sacred resting
place
Starting with its association
with the primordial mound from which they believed life had sprung, the form of
the pyramid held great fascination for the ancient Egyptians; and starting from
their monu- mental constructions, it still fascinates us today.